2.1 State capture and criminal patronage networks
Military operations intervene with significant resources at their disposal. Such extensive resources can have unintended consequences if they are allowed to strengthen malign networks.
Risk Areas
2.3 Support for private militia and security companies
Explanation of risk area
Employment of private militia and security companies – to provide base security, escort convoys, or cooperate in kinetic and intelligence operations – can have longer-term consequences. Resources and support flowing to private militia can enable them to compete with state structures for the monopoly in providing security and using force; the combination of dependence on militia and lack of oversight of their actions results in a culture of impunity allowing militia to abuse civilians and divert public resources for private gain.
Consequences for the mission
Breach of the state’s monopoly on the use of force
Diversion of resources from legitimate governance structures
Creation of parallel power structures which can feed corrupt networks
Alienation of host nation populations
Reputational risk
Making the achievement of mission end state and exit strategy much more difficult
Examples
Case Study: Afghanistan: Corruption and the making of warlords
Support for private militia in Afghanistan
Employment of and support for private militia in Afghanistan enabled the growth of a warlord class possessing the means and will to use force, and capable of diverting resources for their own gain. Private militia were also notorious for mistreating civilians, extorting bribes, carrying out violent assaults, trafficking drugs, kidnapping for ransom, and illegal arms trade. In the long term, it has led to widespread abuses, endangered governance and security, and tarnished the reputation of international forces by association.
View case studyIndicators & Warnings
Reports of abuses, especially from civilians
Unreliable intelligence
Overbilling on services
Living beyond means
Risk Areas within Risk Pathway 2. Relations with host nation stakeholders
2.2 Intelligence dependence
Working with the local community is a necessity for obtaining intelligence in the operational theatre, however there are significant risks for corruption involved in relying heavily on one or a few sources.
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2.3 Support for private militia and security companies
Employment of private militia and security companies can have long term consequences as resources and support can enable them to comete with state structures.
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2.4 Mission involvement in illegal trade, including natural resources
Privileged access and the mandate to control shipments are necessary for international missions to do their jobs; however, they can also create opportunities for corruption and abuse of entrusted position, often for private gain.
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2.5 Sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA)
The access that international missions have to basic resources such as food, water and medication has in the past opened door to sexual abuse. This involves an abuse of entrusted powers – distribution of resources and keeping of peace – for private gratification.
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Mitigations within Risk Pathway 2. Relations with host nation stakeholders
1. Getting your own house in order: anti-corruption for mission forces
1.1 Mission personnel recruitment
1.2 Codification and dissemination of ethical standards
1.3 Pre-deployment training and preparation
1.4 Whistleblowing and reporting channels
1.5 Internal investigations and sanctions
Promoting strong integrity standards among mission personnel can help set expectations for relations with the host nation, and prevent creation of new opportunities for corrupt networks.
Supporting those who are willing to join legitimate, inclusive governance structures can help create an alternative to the power of corrupt networks.
Ensuring political support and resource flows to those with an interest in a peaceful, stable solution to the conflict.
Ensuring that financial flows do not exceed the host nation’s absorptive capacity will diminish the risk of diversion by corrupt networks; tying funding and assistance to improvements in governance can help create momentum for reform.
6. Utilising a comprehensive approach: supporting inter-agency initiatives & shaping incentives
6.1 Supporting civilian initiatives
6.2 Shaping incentives and limiting opportunities: a full spectrum
Supporting civilian initiatives such as reform of the judiciary can help create counter-balance to state capture, and using a full spectrum to shape incentives could render corruption less attractive at strategic, operational and tactical levels.
7. Working with civil society: from political inclusion to tactical cooperation
7.1 Formulating political strategies
7.2 Tactical cooperation: project oversight
Civil society organisations can be valuable allies in the fight against corruption, at a strategy-setting level and when attempting to limit low-level corruption that feeds higher-level networks.
9. Investing in monitoring and oversight
9.1 Overseeing donor funds: Inspector General systems
9.2 Overseeing donor funds: End-use monitoring of equipment
9.3 Strengthening host nation oversight
9.4 Supporting external oversight bodies
Stronger oversight of mission resources will help limit opportunities for corrupt networks, and helping develop host nation or civil society oversight mechanisms will help create longer-term accountability of host nation forces.
Ensuring that the international mission is able to receive and process signals of wrongdoing increases the likelihood of detection and diminishes the appeal of corruption.
11. Mitigating corruption in sustainment and contracting
11.1 Making sustainment and contracting ‘Commander’s business’
11.2 Ensuring appropriate levels of expertise among mission personnel
11.3 Promoting competition: disseminating information about tenders
11.4 Promoting competition: merit- and integrity-based requirements
11.5 Performing supply chain due diligence
11.6 Limited reliance on and control of subcontractors, agents and intermediaries
11.7 Training and awareness raising for contractors and subcontractors
11.8 Transparency in contracting
11.9 Contract oversight
11.10 Sanctioning contractors: suspension and debarment (S&D)
11.11 Tracking and monitoring for asset disposal
Mitigate corruption risks in sustainment and contracting to limit the flow of resources to corrupt networks.