2. Relations with host nation stakeholders

International interventions also depend on local stakeholders for intelligence, information and assessments of the political and economic situation. This brings its own risks: host nation actors, for instance, could try to use the intervening forces for their own ends, which could have very little to do with preserving peace and stability or enhancing development. Intelligence information, if it is not gathered from a wide range of sources, can also present a skewed picture and can help direct the flow of resources to malign actors, strengthening corrupt and criminal networks. This is a particularly serious threat if international interventions operate in countries where state institutions have been captured by criminal patronage networks, as these stakeholders are likely to attempt to use the international presence to advance their own goals.

These manifestations of corruption can be observed at every level. Tactical-level issues such as checkpoint extortion and operational questions related to supporting private militia or obtaining intelligence are intertwined with strategic and political questions on which powerbrokers to support and who to marginalise. In fragile and conflict states, the different types of corruption are likely to add up to vertically integrated corruption networks. Within these networks, the flow of resources starts with corruption at the lower levels – for example, checkpoint bribery – and feeds corruption at the highest levels (often fused with government ministries), where actors offer protection to those who funnel corrupt money their way. Thus tolerating corruption at the lower level can also strengthen the networks that capture the government and ultimately funnel money out of the country.