2.1 State capture and criminal patronage networks
Military operations intervene with significant resources at their disposal. Such extensive resources can have unintended consequences if they are allowed to strengthen malign networks.
Risk Areas
2.5 Sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA)
Explanation of risk area
The access that international missions have to basic resources such as food, water and medication has in the past opened door to sexual abuse, i.e. exchange of sex for money or access to food. This involves an abuse of entrusted powers – distribution of resources and keeping of peace – for private gratification.
Examples
Case Study: Corruption and UN peace operations
MONUSCO and SEA allegations
A UN report into the actions of peacekeepers deployed with the United Nations Organisation Stabilisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) detailed sexual exploitation and abuse involving exchange of sex for money (on average $1-$3 per encounter), jobs or food. Sexual exploitation and abuse allegations in MONUSCO and its predecessor MONUC totalled 214 reports, accounting for 45 per cent of all peacekeeping-related sexual exploitation allegations between 2008 and 2013.
View case studyCase Study: Corruption and UN peace operations
UNMIL and transactional sex
One study of the UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) estimated that almost 58,000 women between the ages of 18-30 years in Monrovia had engaged in transactional sex with a UN peacekeeper during 2012. The researchers estimate a woman’s chance of reaching the age of 25 years old without engaging in transactional sex would be 50 per cent greater if there were no UNMIL troops in Monrovia.
View case studyIndicators & Warnings
Reports of SEA
Unexplained contacts with the host nation population
Incidence of sexually transmitted infections
Reports of mission troops fathering children
Risk Areas within Risk Pathway 2. Relations with host nation stakeholders
2.2 Intelligence dependence
Working with the local community is a necessity for obtaining intelligence in the operational theatre, however there are significant risks for corruption involved in relying heavily on one or a few sources.
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2.3 Support for private militia and security companies
Employment of private militia and security companies can have long term consequences as resources and support can enable them to comete with state structures.
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2.4 Mission involvement in illegal trade, including natural resources
Privileged access and the mandate to control shipments are necessary for international missions to do their jobs; however, they can also create opportunities for corruption and abuse of entrusted position, often for private gain.
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2.5 Sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA)
The access that international missions have to basic resources such as food, water and medication has in the past opened door to sexual abuse. This involves an abuse of entrusted powers – distribution of resources and keeping of peace – for private gratification.
Explore Risk Area
Mitigations within Risk Pathway 2. Relations with host nation stakeholders
1. Getting your own house in order: anti-corruption for mission forces
1.1 Mission personnel recruitment
1.2 Codification and dissemination of ethical standards
1.3 Pre-deployment training and preparation
1.4 Whistleblowing and reporting channels
1.5 Internal investigations and sanctions
Promoting strong integrity standards among mission personnel can help set expectations for relations with the host nation, and prevent creation of new opportunities for corrupt networks.
Supporting those who are willing to join legitimate, inclusive governance structures can help create an alternative to the power of corrupt networks.
Ensuring political support and resource flows to those with an interest in a peaceful, stable solution to the conflict.
Ensuring that financial flows do not exceed the host nation’s absorptive capacity will diminish the risk of diversion by corrupt networks; tying funding and assistance to improvements in governance can help create momentum for reform.
6. Utilising a comprehensive approach: supporting inter-agency initiatives & shaping incentives
6.1 Supporting civilian initiatives
6.2 Shaping incentives and limiting opportunities: a full spectrum
Supporting civilian initiatives such as reform of the judiciary can help create counter-balance to state capture, and using a full spectrum to shape incentives could render corruption less attractive at strategic, operational and tactical levels.
7. Working with civil society: from political inclusion to tactical cooperation
7.1 Formulating political strategies
7.2 Tactical cooperation: project oversight
Civil society organisations can be valuable allies in the fight against corruption, at a strategy-setting level and when attempting to limit low-level corruption that feeds higher-level networks.
9. Investing in monitoring and oversight
9.1 Overseeing donor funds: Inspector General systems
9.2 Overseeing donor funds: End-use monitoring of equipment
9.3 Strengthening host nation oversight
9.4 Supporting external oversight bodies
Stronger oversight of mission resources will help limit opportunities for corrupt networks, and helping develop host nation or civil society oversight mechanisms will help create longer-term accountability of host nation forces.
Ensuring that the international mission is able to receive and process signals of wrongdoing increases the likelihood of detection and diminishes the appeal of corruption.
11. Mitigating corruption in sustainment and contracting
11.1 Making sustainment and contracting ‘Commander’s business’
11.2 Ensuring appropriate levels of expertise among mission personnel
11.3 Promoting competition: disseminating information about tenders
11.4 Promoting competition: merit- and integrity-based requirements
11.5 Performing supply chain due diligence
11.6 Limited reliance on and control of subcontractors, agents and intermediaries
11.7 Training and awareness raising for contractors and subcontractors
11.8 Transparency in contracting
11.9 Contract oversight
11.10 Sanctioning contractors: suspension and debarment (S&D)
11.11 Tracking and monitoring for asset disposal
Mitigate corruption risks in sustainment and contracting to limit the flow of resources to corrupt networks.